Item Details

Death in the Ice: Re-investigations of the Remains from the Theodul Glacier (Switzerland)

Issue: Vol 2 (2015)

Journal: Journal of Glacial Archaeology

Subject Areas: Archaeology

DOI: 10.1558/jga.v2i1.27232

Abstract:

Scattered human and animal bones, weapons, knives, jewellery, coins, leather fragments and fabrics were found at the Upper Theodul glacier (Switzerland) between 1984 and the early 1990s. The finds are assumed to represent a single fatal event. Until recently, the remains were interpreted as those of a mercenary. All objects and fabrics were restored and investigated by experts on behalf of the Valais History Museum using macroscopic, microscopic and typological methods. The animal bones were sorted, identified and attributed to species. The human remains, the main focus of this article, were investigated using standard osteological methods, computed tomography, and stable isotope analysis. The bones belong to an adult male individual who was wearing woollen and silk clothes and leather shoes. He was equipped with a rapier, a dagger and a wheel-lock pistol that were probably manufactured in Germany. Due to their type, it is unlikely that the weapons were used as military arms. The coins were mainly minted in Northern Italy and date the fatal event on the Theodul glacier to around 1600 AD. The associated finds, in particular the weapons, contest the former interpretation as a mercenary and suggest an identification as a traveller or tradesman.

Author: Amelie Alterauge, Sophie Providoli, Negahnaz Moghaddam, Sandra Lösch

View Original Web Page

References :

Acsádi, G., and J. Nemeskéri. 1970. History of Human Lifespan and Mortality. Budapest, Hungary: Akadémiai Kiadó.


Alt, K. W., J. Burger, A. Simons, W. Schön, G. Grupe, S. Hummel, B. Grosskopf, W. Vach, C. H. Buitrago-Tellez, C.-H. Fischer, S. Möller-Wiering, S. S. Shrestha, S. L. Pichler, and A. von den Driesch. 2003. “Climbing into the Past—First Himalayan Mummies Discovered in Nepal.” Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 1529–1535. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0305-4403(03)00056-6


Ambach, E., W. Tributsch, and R. Henn. 1991. “Fatal Accidents on Glaciers: Forensic, Criminological, and Glaciological Conclusions.” Journal of Forensic Sciences 36(5): 1469–1473. http://dx.doi.org/10.1520/jfs13166j


Ambach, E., W. Tributsch, H. Slupetzky, G. Patzelt, and R. Henn. 1992a. “Zur Ausaperung menschlicher Knochen am Prägratkees (Tirol) in den Jahren 1953 und 1990.” Beiträge zur Gerichtlichen Medizin 50: 37–41.


Ambach, W., E. Ambach, W. Tributsch, R. Henn, and H. Unterdorfer. 1992b. “Corpses Released from Glacier Ice: Glaciological and Forensic Aspects.” Journal of Wilderness Medicine 3(4): 372–376. http://dx.doi.org/10.1580/0953-9859-3.4.372


Ambrose, S. H. 1993. “Isotopic Analysis of Paleodiets: Methodological and Interpretive Considerations.” In Investigations of Ancient Human Tissue - Chemical Analyses in Anthropology, edited by M.K. Sanford, 59–130. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.


Amy, R., R. Bhatnagar, E. Damkjar, and O. Beattie. 1986. “The Last Franklin Expedition: Report of a Postmortem Examination of a Crew Member.” Canadian Medical Association Journal 135(2): 115–117.


Aufderheide, A. C., and C. Rodríguez-Martín. 1998. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.


Behre, K.-E. 1987. “Die Ernährung im Mittelalter.” In Mensch und Umwelt im Mittelalter, edited by B. Herr-mann, 74–87. Stuttgart: DVA.


Bentley, R. A., T. D. Price, and E. Stephan. 2004. “Determining the ‘Local’ (87)Sr/(86)Sr Range for Archaeological Skeletons: A Case Study from Neolithic Europe.” Journal of Archaeological Science 31(4): 365–375. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2003.09.003


Bereuter, T. L., E. Lorbeer, C. Reiter, H. Seidler, and H. Unterdorfer. 1996. “Post-mortem Alterations of Human Lipids—Part I: Evaluation of Adipocere Formation and Mummification by Desiccation “ In Human Mummies. A Global Survey of their Status and the Techniques of Conservation, edited by K. Spindler, H. Wilfing, E. Rastbichler-Zissernig, D. Zur Nedden and H. Nothdurfter, 265–273.
Vienna: Springer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-6565-2_25


Brothwell, D.R. 1959. “The Use of Non-metrical Characters of the Skull in Differentiating Populations.” Berichte der Tagung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Anthropologie 6: 103–109.


Ceruti, C. 2004. “Human Bodies as Objects of Dedication at Inca Mountain Shrines (North-Western
Argentina).” World Archaeology 36(1): 103–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0043824042000192632


———. 2014. “Overview of the Inca Frozen Mummies From Mount Lullaillaco (Argentina).” Journal of Glacial Archaeology 1(1): 79–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/jga.v1i1.79


Cooper, C., and S. Lösch. 2013. “Preservation and Representation of Human Bones and its Importance For Anthropological Analysis - An Introduction.” Bulletin der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Anthropologie 19(2): 5–7.


DeNiro, M. J. 1985. “Postmortem Preservation and Alteration of Invivo Bone-Collagen Isotope Ratios in Relation to Paleodietary Reconstruction.” Nature 317: 806–809. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/317806a0


Diaz Tabernero, J. 2013. “La presenza di monete italiane in Svizzera e il progetto d’inventariazione dell’IRMS.” In Le Marche e l’oltre Marche tra l’evo antico e il moderno: Rapporti di varia natura alla luce della documentazione numismatica, edited by R. Rossi, 261–272. Ancona.


Diaz Tabernero, J., and L. Gianazza. 2014. Die Geldbörse des “Söldners” vom Theodul-Pass (VS). Il ripostiglio del “mercenario” del Colle del Teodulo (VS), Inventar der Fundmünzen der Schweiz 11. Bern.


———. 2015. “Die Münzen.” In 400 Jahre im Gletschereis. Der Theodulpass bei Zermatt und sein “Söldner,” edited by S. Providoli, P. Curdy and P. Elsig, 139–145; 218. Baden: Hier und Jetzt.


Dixon, E. J., M. E. Callanan, A. Hafner, and P. G. Hare. 2014. “The Emergence of Glacial Archaeology.” Journal of Glacial Archaeology 1(1): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/jga.v1i1.1


Döppes, D., H. Gill-Frerking, U. Joger, W. Rosendahl, and N. Stümpel. 2014. “A Mountain Hare Mummy from the Zillertaler Alps.” In Yearbook of Mummy Studies 2, edited by H. Gill-Frerking, W. Rosendahl, A. Zink and A. Alterauge, 23–30. Munich: Dr. Friedrich Pfeil.


Eschmann Richon, M. 2015. “Der Theodulpass in den Schriftquellen und in der Kartografie.” In 400 Jahre im Gletschereis. Der Theodulpass bei Zermatt und sein “Söldner,” edited by S. Providoli, P. Curdy and P. Elsig, 81-89. Baden: Hier und Jetzt.


Ferembach, D., I. Schwidetzky, and M. Stloukal. 1979. “Recommendations for Age and Sex Diagnoses of Skeletons.” Bulletins et Memoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris 6(1): 7–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/bmsap.1979.1945


Fleckinger, A. 2011. Ötzi 2.0: Eine Mumie zwischen Wissenschaft, Kult und Mythos. Stuttgart: Theiss.


Fry, B. 2006. Stable Isotope Ecology. LLC New York: Springer Science and Business Media. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/0-387-33745-8


Fuhrer, H. R., and R.-P. Eyer. 2006. “ ‘Söldner’—ein europäisches Phänomen.” In Schweizer in “Fremden Diensten.” Verherrlicht und verurteilt, edited by H. R. Fuhrer and R.-P. Eyer, 27–48. Zürich: Verlag Neue Zürcher Zeitung.


Gaudio, D., A. Betto, S. Vanin, A. De Guio, A. Galassi, and C. Cattaneo. 2013. “Excavation and Study of Skeletal Remains from a World War I Mass Grave.” International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 25(5): 585–592. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/oa.2333


Gaudio, D., A. Galassi, F. Nicolis, N. Cappellozza, and C. Cattaneo. 2014. “First World War Soldiers Preserved in the Ice: two Case Reports.” In Yearbook of Mummy Studies 2, edited by H. Gill-Frerking, W. Rosendahl, A. Zink and A. Alterauge, 31–38. Munich: Dr. Friedrich Pfeil.


Grabner, H. 2015. “Die Kleidung.” In 400 Jahre im Gletschereis. Der Theodulpass bei Zermatt und sein “Söldner,” edited by S. Providoli, P. Curdy and P. Elsig, 107–115; 195–199. Baden: Hier und Jetzt.


Hafner, A. 2009. “Geschichte aus dem Eis—Archäologische Funde aus alpinen Gletschern und Eismulden.” Mitteilungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Bern 66: 159–171.


Hakenbeck, S., E. McManus, H. Geisler, G. Grupe, and T. C. O’Connell. 2010. “Diet and Mobility in Early Medieval Bavaria: A Study of Carbon and Nitrogen Stable Isotopes.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 143(2): 235–249. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21309


Harriss, B. 1970. “The Theodulpass: a History.” Alpine Journal 75: 87–94.


Hauser, G., and G. F. De Stefano. 1989. Epigenetic Variants of the Human Skull. Stuttgart: E. Schweizerbart.


Hedges, R. E. M., and L. M. Reynard. 2007. “Nitrogen Isotopes and the Trophic Level of Humans in Archaeology.” Journal of Archaeological Science 34(8): 1240–1251. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.015


Herrscher, E. 2003. “Alimentation d’une population historique : Analyse des données isotopiques de la nécropole Saint-Laurent de Grenoble (XIIIe-XVe siècle, France).” Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris 15(3/4): 145–320.


Hoefs, J. 2009. Stable Isotope Geochemistry. Sixth Edition. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.


Julen-Lehner, A., and P. Lehner. 2012. “Der Mann vom Theodulpass. Ein frühneuzeitlicher Gletscherfund am oberen Theodulgletscher bei Zermatt aus den Jahren 1984–1989.” Blätter aus der Walliser
Geschichte
44: 181–210.


Kaufmann, B. 1996. “The Corpse from the Porchabella-Glacier in the Grisons, Switzerland (Community of Bergün).” In Human Mummies. A Global Survey of their Status and the Techniques of Conservation, edited by K. Spindler, H. Wilfing, E. Rastbichler-Zissernig, D. Zur Nedden and H. Nothdurfter, 239–246. New York: Springer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-6565-2_23


Keller, A., A. Graefen, M. Ball, M. Matzas, V. Boisguerin, F. Maixner, P. Leidinger, Ch. Backes, R. Khairat, M. Forster, B. Stade, A. Franke, J. Mayer, J. Spangler, St. McLaughlin, M. Shah, C. Lee, T. T. Harkins, A. Sartori, A. Moreno-Estrada, B. Henn, M. Sikora, O. Semino, J. Chiaroni, S. Rootsi, N. M. Myres, V. M. Cabrera, P. A. Underhill, C. D. Bustamante, E. E. Vigl, M. Samadelli, G. Cipollini, J. Haas, H. Katus, B. D. O’Connor, M. R. J. Carlson, B. Meder, N. Blin, E. Meese, C. M. Pusch, and A. Zink. 2012. “New Insights into the Tyrolean Iceman’s Origin and Phenotype as Inferred by Whole-Genome Sequencing.” Nature Communications 3: 698. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms1701


Köhler, A., and E. A. Zimmer. 1982. Grenzen des Normalen und Anfänge des Pathologischen im Röntgenbild des Skeletts. 12th edition. Stuttgart: Thieme.


Krämer, M., P. Lehner, and P. Zink. 1988. “Über zwei Gletscherleichen mit Eiszeiten von 70 und 400 Jahren.” In Gerichtsmedizin. Festschrift für Wilhelm Holczabek, edited by G. Bauer, 5–8. Vienna: Franz Deuticke Verlagsgesellschaft.


Lee-Thorp, J. A. 2008. “On Isotopes and Old Bones.” Archaeometry 50: 925–950. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2008.00441.x


Lehner, P., and A. Julen-Lehner. 1986. “Fund mittelalterlicher Münzen, Schuhwerk, Kleiderresten und menschlichem Gebein am oberen Theodulgletscher bei Zermatt.” Blätter aus der Walliser Geschichte 19: 187–200.


———. 1990. “Fund eines bewaffneten Mannes aus dem 16. Jahrhundert im Eis des Theodulgletschers bei Zermatt.” Bulletin der Vereinigung Schweizer Petroleum-Geologen und -Ingenieure 56(130): 71–83.


Lehner, P., and A. Julen. 1991. “A Man’s Bones with 16th-Century Weapons and Coins in a Glacier near Zermatt, Switzerland.” Antiquity 65: 269–273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00079722


Lell, J. T. and D. C. Wallace. 2000. “The Peopling of Europe from the Maternal and Paternal Perspectives.” American Journal of Human Genetics 67(6): 1376–1381. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/316917


Longin, R. 1971. “New Method of Collagen Extraction for Radiocarbon Dating.” Nature 230(5291): 241–242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/230241a0


Longinelli, A. 1984. “Oxygen Isotopes in Mammal Bone Phosphate: A New Tool for Paleohydrological and Paleoclimatological Research?” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 48(2): 385–390. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(84)90259-X


Lösch, S., R. Gubler, D. Rüttimann, N. Moghaddam, H. Schwarz, and A. Cueni. 2013. “Die römischen Bestattungen der Grabung Wydenpark in Studen. Eine anthropologische Untersuchung.” In Archäologie Bern/ Archéologie bernoise 2013, edited by Archäologischer Dienst des Kantons Bern, 120–134. Bern: Erziehungsdirektion des Kantons Bern.


Lüthi, A. 1978. Zermatt und die Hochalpenpässe: eine geländearchäologische Untersuchung.” Blätter aus der Walliser Geschichte 17(1): 9-134.


———. 1980. “Nochmals der Theodulpass.” Blätter aus der Walliser Geschichte 17(3): 343–356.


Lynnerup, N. 2015. “The Thule Inuit Mummies From Greenland.” The Anatomical Record 298(6): 1001–1006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ar.23131


Makarewicz, C. A. and J. Sealy. 2015. “Dietary reconstruction, mobility, and the analysis of ancient skeletal tissues: Expanding the prospects of stable isotope research in archaeology.” Journal of Archaeological Science 56: 146–158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2015.02.035


Marti, B., D. Sirinelli, L. Maurin, and E. Carpentier. 2013. “Wormian bones in a general paediatric population.” Diagnostic and Interventional Imaging 94(4): 428–432. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diii.2013.01.001


Meier, A. 1989. Zur Untersuchung 01259—Fundkomplex Theodulgletscher. Zürich: Schweizerisches Landesmuseum Zürich, Chemisch-physikalisches Labor.


Meyer, W. 1992. “Der Söldner vom Theodulpass und andere Gletscherfunde aus der Schweiz.” In Der Mann im Eis; Bericht über das Internationale Symposium 1992 in Innsbruck, edited by F. Höpfel, W. Platzer and K. Spindler, 321–333. Innsbruck: Eigenverlag der Universität Innsbruck.


Moghaddam, N., and S. Lösch. 2014. Untersuchung zur Ernährungsrekonstruktion von Jörg Jenatsch.” In unter die Orgl begraben. Das Grab des Jörg Jenatsch in der Kathedrale zu Chur, edited by M. Janosa, 135–138. Chur: Archäologischer Dienst Graubünden.


Moghaddam, N., F. Müller, A. Hafner, and S. Lösch. 2016. “Social Stratigraphy in Late Iron Age Switzerland: Stable Carbon, Nitrogen and Sulphur Isotope Analysis of Human Remains from Münsingen.” Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 8(1): 149–160.


Murphy, W. A. , D. zur Nedden, P. Gostner, R. Knapp, W. Recheis, and H. Seidler. 2003. “The Iceman: Discovery and Imaging.” Radiology 226(3): 614–629. http://dx.doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2263020338


Notman, D. N., L. Anderson, O. B. Beattie, and R. Amy. 1987. “Arctic Paleoradiology: Portable Radiographic Examination of Two Frozen Sailors from the Franklin Expedition (1845–1848).” American Journal of Roentgenology 149(2): 347–350. http://dx.doi.org/10.2214/ajr.149.2.347


Oelze, V. M., J. K. Koch, K. Kupke, O. Nehlich, S. Zäuner, J. Wahl, S. M. Weise, S. Rieckhoff, and M. P. Richards. 2012. “Multi-Isotopic Analysis Reveals Individual Mobility and Diet at the Early Iron Age Monumental Tumulus of Magdalenenberg, Germany.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 148(3): 406–421. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22063


Peterson, B.J., R.W. Howarth, and R.H. Garritt. 1986. “Sulfur and Carbon Isotopes as Tracers of Salt-March Organic Matter Flow.” Ecology 67: 865–874. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1939809


Piccinini, A., St. Coco, W. Parson, C. Cattaneo, D. Gaudio, R. Barbazza, and A. Galassi. 2010. “World War One Italian and Austrian Soldier Identification Project: DNA Results of the First Case.” Forensic Science International: Genetics 4(5): 329–333. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigen.2009.10.005


Providoli, S. 2015. “Zwischen Steinbeil und Konservenbüchse.” In 400 Jahre im Gletschereis. Der Theodulpass bei Zermatt und sein “Söldner,” edited by S. Providoli, P. Curdy and P. Elsig, 43–57. Baden: Hier und Jetzt.


Providoli, S., P. Curdy, and P. Elsig, eds. 2015. 400 Jahre im Gletschereis. Der Theodulpass bei Zermatt und sein “Söldner.” Reihe des Geschichtsmuseums Wallis 13. Baden: Hier und Jetzt.


Rageth, J. 1995. “Ein Gletscherleichenfund im Piz Kesch-Gebiet.” Bündner Monatsblatt 5: 365–391.


———. 2007. “Eine Gletscherleiche vom Piz Kesch-Gebiet - Gemeinde Bergün, Graubünden.” In Mumien. Der Traum vom ewigen Leben, edited by A. Wieczorek, M. Tellenbach and W. Rosendahl, 300–303. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern.


Reckin, R. 2013. “Ice Patch Archaeology in Global Perspective: Archaeological Discoveries from Alpine Ice Patches Worldwide and Their Relationship with Paleoclimates.” Journal of World Prehistory 26(4): 323–385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10963-013-9068-3


Reitsema, L. J., and G. Vercellotti. 2012. “Stable Isotope Evidence for Sex- and Status-Based Variations in Diet and Life History at Medieval Trino Vercellese, Italy.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 148(4): 589–600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22085


Reynard, L. M., and R. Hedges. 2008. “Stable Hydrogen Isotopes of Bone Collagen in Palaeodietary and Palaeoenvironmental Reconstruction.” Journal of Archaeological Science 35: 1934–1942. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2007.12.004


Reynaud Savioz, N. 2015. “’Maultiere und Felsenpferde’: die Tierknochenreste” In 400 Jahre im Gletschereis. Der Theodulpass bei Zermatt und sein “Söldner,” edited by S. Providoli, P. Curdy and P. Elsig, 71–79; 188–193. Baden: Hier und Jetzt.


Richards, M. P., B. T. Fuller, and R. E. M. Hedges. 2001. “Sulphur Isotopic Variation in Ancient Bone Collagen from Europe: Implications for Human Palaeodiet, Residence Mobility, and Modern Pollutant Studies.” Earth and Planetary Science Letters 191(3/4): 185–190. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00427-7


Rogers, S. R., M. Fischer, and M. Huss. 2014. “Combining Glaciological and Archaeological Methods for Gauging Glacial Archaeological Potential.” Journal of Archaeological Science 52: 410–420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.09.010


Schoeninger, M. J., and M. J. DeNiro. 1984. “Nitrogen and Carbon Isotopic Composition of Bone-Collagen from Marine and Terrestrial Animals.” Geochimica Et Cosmochimica Acta 48(4): 625–639. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(84)90091-7


Senn, M. 2015. “Die Waffen.” In 400 Jahre im Gletschereis. Der Theodulpass bei Zermatt und sein “Söldner,” edited by S. Providoli, P. Curdy and P. Elsig, 129–137; 215–217. Baden: Hier und Jetzt.


Sikora, M., M. L. Carpenter, A. Moreno-Estrada, B. M. Henn, P. A. Underhill, F. Sanchez-Quinto, I. Zara, M. Pitzalis, C. Sidore, F. Busonero, A. Maschio, A. Angius, C. Jones, J. Mendoza-Revilla, G. Nekhrizov, D. Dimitrova, N. Theodossiev, T. T. Harkins, A. Keller, F. Maixner, A. Zink, G. Abecasis, S. Sanna, F. Cucca, and C. D. Bustamante. 2014. “Population Genomic Analysis of Ancient and Modern Genomes Yields New Insights into the Genetic Ancestry of the Tyrolean Iceman and the Genetic Structure of Europe.” Plos Genetics 10(5). doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004353.


Singh Farswan, Y., and J. Singh. 2015. “Study of Preservation Status and Dietary Reconstruction in the Human Remains Recovered from Roopkund Lake through Chemical Analysis of Faunal Remains.” Journal of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering 9: 15–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.17265/1934-7375/2015.01.002


Spindler, K. 2000. Der Mann im Eis. Neue sensationelle Erkenntnisse über die Mumie in den Ötztaler Alpen. Munich: Goldmann.


Stadler, H. 2005. “Untertan kontra Obrigkeit. Die Gletscherleiche des Wilderers Norbert Mattersberger vom Gradetzkees in Osttirol.” In Brüche und Brücken. Kulturtransfer im Alpenraum von der Steinzeit bis zur Gegenwart, edited by J. Holzner and E. Walde, 236–249. Vienna: Folio.


Szilvássy, J. 1988. “Altersdiagnose am Skelett.” In Anthropologie: Handbuch der vergleichenden Biologie des Menschen, edited by R. Knussmann, 421–435. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag.


Thali, M. J., B. Lux, S. Lösch, F. W. Rösing, J. Hürlimann, P. Feer, R. Dirnhofer, U. Königsdorfer, and U. Zollinger. 2011. “’Brienzi’—the Blue Vivianite Man of Switzerland: Time Since Death Estimation of an Adipocere Body.” Forensic Science International 211(1/3): 34–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.04.009


Tütken, T., E. Langenegger, and W. Wild. 2008. “Native or not? Isotope Analysis of a Female Skeleton on the 9th Century AD from Elsau, Canton Zurich, Switzerland.” Anthropologischer Anzeiger 66(1): 19–50.


Ulrich-Bochsler, S. and L. Meyer. 2001. “Die anthropologischen Untersuchungen an den spätmittelalterlichen Bestattungen. Teil C.” In Unterseen. Die reformierte Pfarrkirche. Die Ergebnisse der archäologischen Forschungen von 1985 (mit Ergänzungen von 1998/2000), edited by P. Eggenberger and S. Ulrich-Bochsler, 93–113. Bern: Paul Haupt.


Van Dülmen, R. 1990. Kultur und Alltag in der Frühen Neuzeit. Das Haus und sein Menschen. Munich: C. H. Beck.


Vika, E. 2009. “Strangers in the Grave? Investigating Local Provenance in a Greek Bronze Age Mass Burial Using delta S-34 Analysis.” Journal of Archaeological Science 36(9): 2024–2028. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2009.05.022


Volken, S., and M. Volken. 2015. “Das Lederzeug.” In 400 Jahre im Gletschereis. Der Theodulpass bei Zermatt und sein “Söldner,” edited by S. Providoli, P. Curdy and P. Elsig, 117–127; 200–214. Baden: Hier und Jetzt.


White, T. D., M. T. Black, and P. A. Folkens. 2012. Human Osteology. 3rd edition. Oxford: Elsevier Academic Press.