Item Details

From Arabia to Bilād al-Shām: Muʿāwiya’s Development of an Infrastructure and Monumental Architecture of Early Umayyad Statehood

Issue: Vol 6 No. 2 (2019)

Journal: Journal of Islamic Archaeology

Subject Areas:

DOI: 10.1558/jia.40700

Abstract:

This article first examines the early history of Muʿāwiya and his monumental architectural achievements in Arabia. He was from a wealthy land-owning elite Arabian family of traders from the Meccan Qurayshi tribe. As Companion and scribe of the Prophet he was well-positioned to achieve the goals of tribal unification, agricultural development, initiating a period of architectural construction and state-building. Second the article’s major focus is his monumental architectural construction in Greater Syria evidenced in the archaeological and re-evaluated textual evidence, which support his creation of statehood infrastructure for the Umayyads in Bilād al-Shām. As governor of Syria and later as the first Sufyānid Amīr al-muʾminīn or Commander of the Faithful in the Dār al-Islam, he controlled the development of an architecture and bureaucratic infrastructure of state throughout the region. After arrival with the armies of conquest in 634, he became provincial governor of Syria in 638/639 and continued the process of tribal unification and state-building at the behest of the Rashidun caliphs ʿUmar and ʿUthman.  As Amīr al-muʾminīn he continued tribal consolidation, settling disputes by moving populations within the Dār al-Islam. He also engaged in monumental architectural development throughout the realm including mosques, palaces and fortresses, invented the miḥrāb–the stone or space (later the niche) indicating the direction of prayer toward Mecca, and established what was later known as the ribāṭ system along the Mediterranean coast. Though there are meager documentary survivals of texts and inscriptions, there is now sufficient archaeological and recent secondary scholarly evidence particularly in a revision textual usage to claim that Muʿāwiya created the Umayyad state and monuments reflecting statehood during his reign as Commander of the Faithful in Syria with multiple capitals in Damascus, al-Jābiya, al-Ṣinnabra and Jerusalem.

Author: Beatrice St. Laurent

View Full Text

References :

Alexandre, Y.

2013. “Tel Bet Yerah, the Inverted Siphon Pipeline.” Hadashot Arkheologiyot: Excavations and Surveys in Israel 125: 1–20.

2014. “Tell Bet Yerah: the Bridge to el-Sinnabra: Final Report.” Hadashot Arkheologiyot: Excavations and Surveys in Israel 126: 1–11.

2017. “The Bridge to al-Sinnabra.” In Bet Yerah: Volume III. Hellenistic Philoteria and Islamic al-Sinnabra: The 1933-1986 and 2007-2013 Excavations, edited by R. Greenberg, O. Tal, T. Daʾadli, 205–212. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1ww3v1t.16

Alexandre, Y. and A. Shapiro

2017. “The Inverted Siphon Pipeline to al-Sinnabra. Petrographic Analysis of the Terracotta Pipes.” In Bet Yerah: Volume III. Hellenistic Philoteria and Islamic al-Sinnabra: The 1933–1986 and 2007–2013 Excavations, edited by
R. Greenberg, O. Tal, T. Daʾadli, 189–199. IAA Reports 61. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.

Allen, T.

2009. An ʿAbbasid Fishpond Villa Near Makkah. Occidental, CA: Solpsist Press.

Al-Rashid, S.

2008. “Sadd al-Khanaq: An Early Umayyad dam Near Medina, Saudi Arabia.” Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 38: 265–275.

Avner, R.

1998. “Early Islamic Settlement in the Southern Negev.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 310: 39–57. https://doi.org/10.2307/1357577

2003. “The Recovery of the Kathisma Church and its Influence on Octagonal Buildings.” In One Land-Many Cultures: Archaeological Studies in honor of Stanislao Loffreda OFM, edited by G. Bottini, L. DiSegni and L. Chrupcata, 173-186. Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press.

2007. The Kathisma: A Christian and Muslim Pilgrimage Site.” ARAM 19: 541–557. https://doi.org/10.2143/ARAM.19.0.2020745

Avner, U and J. Magness.

2015. “Desert Farming in the Southern ʿAraba Valley, Israel, 2nd Century BCE to 11th Century CE.” In Agricultural and Pastoral Landscapes in Pre-Industrial Society: Choices Stability and Change, edited by F. Retamero, I. Schjellerup and A. Davis, 19–35. Oxford: Oxbow. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvh1dswm.9

1999–2000. “Nabataean Standing Stones and their Interpretation.” ARAM 11/12: 97–122. https://doi.org/10.2143/ARAM.11.1.504453

Avni, G.

1994. “Early Mosques in the Negev Highlands: New Archaeological Evidence on Islamic Penetration of Southern Palestine.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 294: 83–100. https://doi.org/10.2307/1357155

2007. “From Standing Stones to Open Mosques in the Negev Desert: The Archaeology of Religious Transformation on the Fringes.” Near Eastern Archaeology 70:3: 124–138. https://doi.org/10.1086/NEA20361319

2014. The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199684335.001.0001

Bisheh, G.

1993. “From Castellum to Palatium: Umayyad Mosaic Pavements from Qasr al-Hallabat in Jordan.” Muqarnas X: 49–56. https://doi.org/10.2307/1523171

Bijovsky, G.

2017. “The Coins.” In Bet Yerah: Volume III. Hellenistic Philoteria and Islamic al-Sinnabra: The 1933–1986 and 2007–2013 Excavations, edited by R. Greenberg, O. Tal, T. Daʾadli, 179–188. . IAA Reports 61. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1ww3v1t.13

Blakely, J.

2010. “Ajlan: Locating the Estate of Amr B. al-As.” Near Eastern Archaeology 73: 210–222. https://doi.org/10.1086/NEA41103939

Creswell, K.A.C.

1932/1969. Early Muslim Architecture, vol. I. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Crone, P.

1980. Slaves on Horses. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511563508

Crone, P. and M. A. Cook.

1977. Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Crone P. and M. Hinds.

1986. God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cytryn-Silverman, K.

2009. “The Mosque of Tiberias.” Muqarnas 26: 37–61. https://doi.org/10.1163/22118993_02601003

2015.“Tiberias, From its Foundation to the End of the Early Islamic Period.” In Galilee in the Late Second Temple and Mishnaic Periods: Volume 2: The Archaeologiccal Record from Galilean Cities, Towns, and Villages. edited by D. Fiensy and J. Strange, 186–210. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press.

Daʾadli. T.

2017. “Khirbat al-Karak and al-Sinnabra: An Historical Introduction.” In Bet Yerah: Volume III. Hellenistic Philoteria and Islamic al-Sinnabra: The 1933–1986 and 2007–2013 Excavation, edited by R. Greenberg, O. Tal, T. Daʾadli, 125–132. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1ww3v1t.11

2017. “Stratigraphy and Architecture of the Fortified Palace.” In Bet Yerah: Volume III. Hellenistic Philoteria and Islamic al-Sinnabra: The 1933–1986 and 2007–2013 Excavations, edited by R. Greenberg, O. Tal, T. Daʾadli, 133–178. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1ww3v1t.12

Delougaz, P. and R. Haines.

1960. A Byzantine Church at al-Karak. Oriental Institute Publications 86. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Di Segni, L.

1997. “The Greek Inscriptions of Hammat Gader.” In The Roman Baths of Hammat Gader: Final Report, by Y. Hirschfeld, 185–266. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.

Donner, F.

1986. “The Formation of the Islamic State.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 106: 203–296. https://doi.org/10.2307/601592

1995. “Centralized Authority and Military Autonomy in the Early Islamic Conquests.” Cameron, 337–360.

2010. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Elad, A.

1982. “The Coastal Cities of Palestine during the Middle Ages.” In The Jerusalem Cathedra. Studies in the History, Archaeology, Geography and Ethnography of the Land of Israel, Edited by L. Levine, 146–167. Yad Ben Zvi Institute. Jerusalem: Wayne State University Press.

1999. “The Southern Golan in the Early Muslim Period. The Significance of Two Newly Discovered Milestones of ʿAbd al-Malik.” Der Islam 76: 33–88. https://doi.org/10.1515/islm.1999.76.1.33

Ettinghausen, R. and O. Grabar.

1987 The Art and Architecture of Islam 650–1250. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

Flood, F.

1999. “Light in Stone: The Commemoration of the Prophet in Umayyad Architecture.” In Bayt al-Maqdis: Jerusalem and Early Islam 2, 311–359. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

2001 The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Making of an Umayyad Visual Culture. Leiden: Brill.

Foss, C.

2002. “A Syrian Coinage of Muʿāwiya?” Revue numismatique 158: 353–366. https://doi.org/10.3406/numi.2002.1451

2009a. “Egypt Under Muʾawiya Part I: Flavius Papas in Upper Egypt.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 77(1): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X09000019

2009b. “Egypt Under Muʾawiya Part II: Fustat and Alexandria.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 77(2): 259–278.

2010. “Muʾāwiya’s State.” In Money, Power and Politics in Early Islamic Syria: A Review of Current Debates, edited by John Haldon, 76–96. Farnham: Ashgate. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X09000512

Gluhak, T.

2017. “Geochemical Study of the Basalt Blocks from the Bet Yerah and Sussita Siphons.” In Bet Yerah: Volume III. Hellenistic Philoteria and Islamic al-Sinnabra: The 1933–1986 and 2007–2013 Excavations, edited by R. Greenberg,
O. Tal and T. Da
ʾadli, 199–204. IAA Reports 61. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1ww3v1t.15

Graf, D.

2015. “Arabs in Palestine from the neo-Assyrian to the Persian Periods.” ARAM Trade Routes & Seafaring in the Ancient Near East: The Idumeans and the Nabateans 27(1/2): 283–299.

2016. “Arabia and the Arabians.” In The World Around the Old Testament: The People and Places of the Ancient Near East, edited by B. T. Arnold and B. A. Strawn, 417–465. Ada, MI: Baker Academic.

2017. ““North Arabian and Aramaic Texts from Maʿayan Baraukh in Upper Galilee.” Palestine Exploration Quarterly 149(1): 28–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/00310328.2016.1208519

Greenberg, R., T. Daʿadli and D. Whitcomb.

2018. “Tel Bet Yerah Research and Excavation Project.” https://www.facebook.com/TelBetYerah/

Greenberg, R. and S. Paz.

2010. “Tel Bet Yerah 2007, 2009.” Hadashot Arkheologiyot: Excavations and Surveys in Israel 122.

Greenberg, R., O. Tal and T. Daʿadli.

2017. Bet Yerah Volume III. Hellenistic Philoteria and Islamic al-Sinnabra. The 1933–1986 and 2007–2013 Excavations. IAA Reports, No. 61. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1ww3v1t

2017. “The Long-term History of Bet Yerah.” In Bet Yerah: Volume III. Hellenistic Philoteria and Islamic al-Ṣinnabra: The 1933–1986 and 2007–2013 Excavations, edited by R. Greenberg, O. Tal and T. Daʿadli, 213–220. IAA Reports 61. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1ww3v1t.17

2017. “Introduction.” In Bet Yerah: Volume III. Hellenistic Philoteria and Islamic al-Ṣinnabra: The 1933-1986 and 2007-2013 Excavations, edited by R. Greenberg, O. Tal and T. Daʾadli, 1–6. IAA Reports 61. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1ww3v1t.5

Hasson, I.

1982. “Recherches sur Muʾawiya ibn Abī Sufyān. Sa politique tribale, militaire et agraire.” Unpublished PhD thesis, Hebrew University of Jerusalem [Hebrew].

1982. “Remarques sur L’inscription de L’epoque de Muʿawiya a Hammat Gader.” Israel Exploration Journal 32(2/3): 97–101.

1995. “The Penetration of Arab Tribes in Palestine During the First Century of the Hijra.” Cathedra 32: 54–65 [Hebrew].

1998. “La conversion de Muaʿwiya ibn Sufyan.” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 22: 214–242.

Hattstein, M.

2004/2011. “Islam—World Religion and Cultural Power.” In Islam: Art and Architecture, edited by M. Hattstein and
P. Delius, 8–33. Potsdam: H. F. Ullmann.

Hawting, G.

2000 [1986]. The First Dynasty of Islam. The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750. 2nd edition. London: Routledge.

Hillenbrand, R.

1999. Islamic Art and Architecture. London: Thames and Hudson.

Hinds, M.

1954–2005. “Muʿāwiya I” In Encyclopaedia of Islam. Second Edition, edited by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs, 263–268. Leiden: Brill.

Hirschfeld, Y.

1997. The Roman Baths of Hammat Gader: Final Report. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.

Howard-Johnston, J.

2010. Witnesses to a World Crisis: Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199208593.003.00014

Hoyland, R.

1997. Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zorastrian Writings on Early Islam. Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press.

2006. “New Documentary Texts and the Early Islamic State.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and Asian Studies 69: 395–416. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X06000188

2015. In God’s Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Humphreys, S.

1991. Islamic History: A Framework for Inquiry. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

2006/2013. Muʿawiya ibn Abi Sufyan: From Arabia to Empire. London: One World Publications; eBook edition.

Johns, J.

1999. “The ‘House of the Prophet’ and the Concept of the Mosque.” In Bayt al-Maqdis, Jerusalem and Early Islam, edited by Jeremy Johns, 59–112. Oxford Studies in Islamic Art, 9.2. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

2003. “Archaeology and the History of Early in Islam: The first Seventy years.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 46(4): 411–436. https://doi.org/10.1163/156852003772914848

Kaplony, A.

2002. The Haram of Jerusalem 324-1099: Temple, Friday Mosque, Area of Spiritual Power. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.

Kennedy, H.

1986/2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century 2nd edition. London: Pearson/Longman.

2007. The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In. Cambridge Mass: Da Capo Press.

Khoury, N.

1993 “The Dome of the Rock, the Kaʾba, and Ghumdan: Arab Myths and Umayyad Monuments.” Muqarnas10: 57–65. https://doi.org/10.2307/1523172

Kister, M. J.

1979. “Some Reports Concerning al-Tāʾif.” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 1: 1–18. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, the Hebrew University,

Lammens, H.

1907. “Études sur le règne du Calife Omaiyade Moʾawiya Ier: Moʾawiya et les Omaydes.” Mélanges de la Faculté Orientale. Université Saint-Joseph, II. Beirut, 22–41. (Republished as Études sur le règne du Calife Omaiyade Moʾawiya Ier. Paris: 1908).

1914. Le Berceau de l’Islam: l’Arabie occidentale a la veille de l’Hégire. Rome: Sumptibus Pontificii Instituti Biblici.

1922. “La Cité Arabe de Tāif à la Veille de l’Hégire.” Mélanges de l’ Université Saint-Joseph, 8:4. Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique.

1930. “Études sur le siècle des Omeyyades.” Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique.

1965/1991. “Al-Djābiya. ” In Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd edition, Vol. II: 360.

Lecker, M.

1989. “The Estates of ʿAmr b. al-ʿAs in Palestine: Notes on a New Negev Arabic Inscription.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 1: 24–37. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X00023041

1995. Muslims, Jews and Pagans: Studies on early Islamic Medina. Leiden: E. J. Brill

2015. “Were the Ghassānids and the Byzantines behind Muḥammad’s hijra? In Les Jafnides. Des rois arabes au service de Byzance (VIe siècle de l’ère chrétienne). D. Genequand and C. Robin, 277–294. Paris: De Boccard. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1b7x6tc.14

Le Strange, G.

1890. Palestine under the Moslems. The Haram of Jerusalem. London: Alexander P. Watt for the Palestine Exploration Fund.

1922. “La Cité Arabe de Taif à la Veille de l’Hégire.” Mélanges de la Faculté Orientale. Université Saint-Joseph, VIII. Beirut 115–327.

Magness, J.

2003. The Archaeology of Early Islamic Settlement in Palestine. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.

Masarwa, Y.

2006. “From a Word of God to Archaeological Monuments: A Historical Study of the Umayyad Ribāṭs of Palestine.” Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Department of Art and Archaeology, Princeton University.

Miles, G.

1948. “Early Islamic Inscriptions near Taʾif in the Hijaz.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 7: 236–42. https://doi.org/10.1086/370887

1952. “Mihrāb and ʿAnazah: A Study in Early Islamic Iconography.” In Archaeologica Orientalia in Memoriam Ernst Herzfeld, edited by G. Miles, 156–171. New York: J. J. Augustin.

Morony, M.

1984. Iraq After the Muslim Conquest. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Müller. W.

1954–2005. “Mārib.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition. 6: 559–567

Peterson, A.

2005. The Towns of Palestine Under Muslim Rule AD 600–1600. British Archaeological Reports International Series 1381. Oxford: Archaeopress.

Piccirillo, M.

1993. The Mosaics of Jordan. Amman: American Center of Oriental Research Publications.

Raphael, S.

2014. Azdud (Ashdod Yam): An Early Islamic Fortress on the Mediterranean Coast. British Archaeological Reports International Series 2673. Oxford: Archaeopress.

Reich, R.

1993. “The Bet Yeraḥ ‘Synagogue’ Reconsidered.” ʿAtiqot 22: 137–144.

Rice, D.

1965/1975. Islamic Art. Revised edition. London: Thames and Hudson.

Robin, C.

2010. “Himyarite Kings on Coinage.” In Coinage of the Caravan Kingdoms: Studies in Ancient Arabian Monetization, edited by M. Huth and P. van Allen. New York: The American Numismatic Society.

Robinson, C. F.

2000. Empire and Elites After the Muslim Conquest. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511497513

2003. Islamic Historiography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

2014. “Crone and the end of Orientalism.” In Islamic Cultures, Islamic Contexts: Essays in Honor of Professor Patricia Crone, edited by B. Sadeghi, A. Q. Asad, A. Silverstein, R. Hoyland, 1–16. Leiden: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004281714_023

St. Laurent, B.

2014. “Book Review of The Byzantine-Islamic Tradition: An Archaeological Approach, Oxford Studies in Byzantium, Oxford University Press. Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies 2(4): 331–334. https://doi.org/10.5325/jeasmedarcherstu.2.4.0330

St. Laurent, B. and I. Awwad.

2013. “The Marwani Musalla in Jerusalem: New Findings.” Jerusalem Quarterly 54: 7–30.

2016. “The Archaeology and Preservation of Early Islamic Jerusalem: Revealing the 7th Century Mosque on the Haram al-Sharif.” In Proceedings of the 9th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, 9–13 June 2014, Basel, vol. 2, edited by R. Stucky, O. Kaelin and H. Mathys, 441–453. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvc7713g.36

2018. “Capitalizing Jerusalem and Beyond: A Preliminary Note on Muʾawiya’s Urban and Imperial Vision, 638–680,” with Awwad, I. In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Volume 1. Iskamic Archaeology, edited by M. Ritter and M. Guidetti, 653–666. Wiesbaden: Harrssowitz Verlag. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvcm4f86.53

2020. Capitalizing Jerusalem: Muʿawiya’s Urban Vision 638–680, Monographs of Islamic Archaeology. Sheffield: Equinox Publishing. [Under contract]

Saudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage.

n.d. “Report: Heritage Dams.” https://www.scta.gov.sa/en/Antiquities-Museums/Researches/Documents/Heritage_Dams2.pdf

Schick, R.

1995. The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule: A Historical and Archaeological Study. Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press.

Serjeant, R.

1959. “Mihrāb.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 22: 441–444. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X00065526

1983. “The Mosques of Saʿnā—The Yemeni Islamic Setting.” In Saʿnā. An Arabian Islamic City, edited by R. B. Sergeant and R. Lewcock, 310–322. London: World of Islam Festival Trust.

Shahid, I.

2002. Byzantium and the Arabs in the sixth Century. II Part 1: Toponymy, Monuments, Historical Geography and Frontier Studies. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks.

Smith, R.

1983. “Early and Medieval History of Saʿnā, ca. 622–953/1515.” In Saʿnā. An Arabian Islamic City, edited by R. B. Sergeant and R. Lewcock, 49–67. London: World of Islam Festival Trust.

al-Ṭabarī

1879–1901. Tar’īkh al-rusul wa-l mulūk I. Edited by M. J. de Goeje. Leiden: Brill online.

Taxel, I.

2018. “Early Islamic Palestine: Toward a More Fine-Tuned Recognition of Settlement Patterns and Land Uses in Town and Country.” Journal of Islamic Archaeology 5(2): 153–180. https://doi.org/10.1558/jia.38016

Taxel, I., Sivan D., Bookman R. and J. Riskin.

2018. “An Early Islamic Inter-Settlement Agroecosystem in the Coastal Sand of the Yavneh Dunefield, Israel.” Journal of Field Archaeology 43(7): 551–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/00934690.2018.1522189

Walmsley, A.

2005. “The Village Ascendant in Byzantine and Early Islamic Jordan: Socio-Economic Forces and Cultural Responses.” In Les Villages dans l’empire Byzantine IVe-Xve siècle, Réalités Byzantines 11, edited by J. LeFort,
C. Morrisson, J. P. Sodini, 511–522.
Paris: Lethielleux.

Whelan, E.

1986. “The Origins of the Mihrab Mujawwaf: A Reinterpretation.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 18: 215–223. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743800029792

Whitcomb, D.

2002. “Khirbet al-Karak Identified with Sinnabra.” Al-ʿUsur al-Wusta: The Bulletin of Middle East Medievalists 14(1): 1–6.

2009. “From Pastoral Peasantry to Tribal Urbanites: Arab Tribes and the Foundation of the Islamic State in Syria.” In Nomads, Tribes and the State in the Ancient Near East; Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives, edited by J. Szuchman, 241–260. Chicago, IL: Oriental Institute.

2011. “Qaysariyah as an Early Islamic Settlement.” In Shaping the Middle East: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in an Age of Transition 400–800 CE, edited by K. Holum and H. Lapin, 65–82. Bethesda MD: University Press of Maryland.

2013. “Jerusalem and the Beginnings of the Early Islamic City.” In Unearthing Jerusalem: 150 Years of Archaeological Research in the Holy City, edited by K. Galor and G. Avni, 399–416. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.

2016. “Notes for an Archaeology of Muʿāwiya: Material Culture in the Transitional Period of Believers.” In Christians and Others in the Umayyad State, [Lamine 1], edited by A. Borrut and F. Donner, 11–27. Chicago, IL: Oriental Institute.